Introduction – Introduction to the World of Computers
What is a computer?
A computer is an electronic device that receives information, can make changes to it, and presents it to the user in different ways.
In other words, the computer processes the data entered into it according to certain rules, modifies it, and presents the result in a form that humans can understand — such as text, graphics, sound, or video.
What are the basic components of a computer and what is its fundamental operating principle?
Power Supply (Power Supply Unit – PSU):
The power supply provides electrical energy to all components of the computer. It converts the 220V mains voltage into lower and stable values (for example 12V, 5V, 3.3V) that the computer can use. The quality of the power supply is extremely important for the stable and safe operation of the computer.
Motherboard:
The motherboard is the computer's "main circuit board." All other components — processor, memory, graphics card, hard drive, etc. — connect to the motherboard. It enables the flow of data between these parts and controls their compatible operation.
Central Processing Unit (CPU – Central Processing Unit):
The CPU is considered the "brain" of the computer. It executes the commands given by software, performs calculations, and processes data. The speed of the CPU is measured in "GHz." As the number of cores increases, its ability to perform parallel processing also increases.
Random Access Memory (RAM – Random Access Memory):
RAM is the memory where programs and data are temporarily stored. While the computer is running, information is kept in RAM; however, when the power is cut, this data is erased. RAM is a fast type of memory and directly affects system performance.
Hard Disk or SSD (Hard Disk / Solid State Drive):
These devices provide long-term data storage. In hard disks, data is stored using magnetic methods; in SSDs, however, electronic memory chips are used. SSDs are considered superior to hard disks in terms of speed and durability.
Graphics Card (Graphics Processing Unit – GPU):
The graphics card processes graphic images and presents them on the screen. It is of great importance in graphics-intensive tasks such as games, video editing, and artificial intelligence applications. Although some processors contain an integrated graphics unit, a dedicated (separate) GPU is preferred for high performance.
Neural Processing Unit (NPU – Neural Processing Unit):
An NPU is a specialized processor designed to accelerate artificial intelligence and machine learning operations. It performs parallel calculations in a way similar to the working logic of neurons in the human brain.
NPUs provide higher efficiency than the CPU and GPU, especially in tasks such as voice recognition, image processing, and natural language processing.
In modern laptops, smartphones, and servers, NPU modules are now becoming standard. In the future, NPUs are expected to integrate more strongly with operating systems and software.
These components work in close harmony with each other. If any of these parts develop a problem, the overall stability and performance of the system can be seriously affected. For this reason, both the correct selection of components and their proper installation are essential conditions for the efficient operation of the computer.
In addition, these components are considered the fundamental parts of most modern computers produced today.
💡 1. What is a power supply (PSU – Power Supply Unit) and what is its basic function?
The power supply (PSU) is the device that converts electrical energy (220V AC) into stable voltages that computer components can use.
The power rating (Watt) of the PSU should be selected according to the total energy requirement of the computer.
⚙️ 2. Minimum and maximum power levels:
🔹 Low-level PSU — 200–350W
Office computers, mini PCs
Sufficient for a simple CPU + integrated graphics unit.
🔹 Mid-level PSU — 400–650W
Mid-level gaming computers, workstations
Operates stably with a dedicated GPU and SSDs.
If a CPU and GPU selected for future overclocking will be used, it is more appropriate to choose a PSU that is 100W stronger than the standard 650W PSU watt value.
In general, selecting a PSU slightly more powerful than the total wattage required by all components of the computer helps the system run cooler, more stable, and with less stress.
🔹 High-level PSU — 700–1000W
Systems with powerful graphics cards (RTX 4080, 4090)
Should be 80+ Gold or Platinum certified.
If a CPU and GPU selected for future overclocking will be used, it is more appropriate to select a PSU 100W higher than the standard 700–1000W PSU watt value.
In general, choosing a PSU slightly higher than the value required by all the components of the computer helps the system run cooler, more stable, and without problems.
In addition, server systems without a dedicated GPU (graphics card) and capable of going up to 128GB RAM are widely used in the world — they are suitable for basic and mid-level tasks.
🔹 Extreme-level PSU — 1200–1600W and above
Servers, multi-GPU artificial intelligence systems
Used only in professional systems and data centers.
If a CPU and GPU selected for future overclocking will be used, it is more appropriate to choose a PSU 100W stronger than the standard 1200–1600W PSU.
In general, selecting a PSU that is slightly higher than the computer's total required watt value helps the computer run cooler, more stable, and with less stress.
🔹 And there are PSU (power supply) models with higher wattage than the values listed above.
However, these PSUs are designed for heavier workloads.
Examples of more powerful PSUs (Power supplies):
Power | Type | Usage Area | Example Models
🔹 3000–3500W — High-end PC / Server PSU
Workstations operating with multiple GPUs, crypto mining systems
Super Flower Leadex Titanium 3000W, FSP Cannon Pro 3000W
🔹 4000–5000W — Industrial-type server PSU
HPC (High Performance Computing), artificial intelligence, render farms
Delta, Lite-On, Zippy 4000W redundant PSU (e.g.: 2×2000W module)
🔹 6000–8000W — Data center power modules
NVIDIA DGX, AMD Instinct systems
Supermicro, Dell EMC, HPE server power units
🔹 10,000W and above — Supercomputer PSU / Blade server power chassis
HPC systems, artificial intelligence training clusters
NVIDIA DGX H100, AMD MI300X rack power modules (~10–12 kW)
🔹 20,000W (20 kW) — Full rack (rack) power block / PDU
Large data centers and HPC infrastructures
Schneider Electric, Delta, Eaton PDUs (3-phase 380–415V input)
🔹🔹 Additional information:
The world's most powerful supercomputers can contain thousands of PSUs (power supplies).
Example: The El Capitan supercomputer in the United States.
In general, such supercomputers include thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands, of CPUs, GPUs, and other computer components.
**Motherboard (Mainboard)**
**💻 Motherboard – Definition**
The motherboard is the main component to which all essential parts of the computer (CPU, GPU, RAM, SSD (SATA, NVMe, M.2), HDD, NPU, and power supply, etc.) are connected.
(This is also found in desktop computers, laptops, portable devices like the Steam Deck, and other similar systems.)
---
### **Desktop PC motherboards**
| **Type (Form factor)** | **Size (approx.)** | **Usage area** |
| ------------------------ | ------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------- |
| **ATX** | 305 × 244 mm | The most common standard, for gaming and work computers |
| **Micro-ATX (mATX)** | 244 × 244 mm | Medium-sized systems, for smaller cases |
| **Mini-ITX** | 170 × 170 mm | For small-form-factor (SFF) computers |
| **E-ATX (Extended ATX)** | 305 × 330 mm | For powerful workstations and server computers |
| **XL-ATX / SSI-EEB** | 345 × 330 mm+ | For multi-GPU and high-performance systems |
---
### **Server and data center motherboards**
| **Type** | **Usage area** |
| ---------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **SSI-CEB / SSI-EEB** | Professional servers, dual-processor systems |
| **Blade Server Board** | For "blade" type high-density servers |
| **Proprietary Server Board** | Custom designs by companies like Dell, HP, Supermicro |
| **GPU / AI Server Board** | For HPC systems using artificial intelligence and multiple GPUs |
---
### **Portable and gaming devices**
| **Device type** | **Feature of the motherboard** |
| ---------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------- |
| **Steam Deck / ROG Ally / Ayaneo** | Entire system on one board (SoC + RAM + GPU integrated) |
| **Game consoles (PS5, Xbox)** | Custom-designed board, APU-based |
| **Tablets and mobile devices** | Small-sized micro boards based on "SoC" |
---
### **Laptop Motherboards**
There is no standard size for laptop motherboards — each model has its own unique design.
Most components (CPU — except in older-generation laptops and not including some laptop manufacturers like Eurocom; RAM — a condition that applies to many of the newest laptops; and GPU) are soldered to the motherboard and cannot be replaced.
Only in some "modular" models is it possible to replace these components.
Manufacturers such as Eurocom, Clevo, and Framework produce modular-design laptops; in these models, the CPU, GPU, RAM, and even some sections of the motherboard can be easily replaced and upgraded.
Thus, most modern laptops lose their modular flexibility due to compact and dense design;
however, some professional and technically oriented models retain a fully repairable and replaceable structure.
---
## **Central Processing Unit (CPU – Central Processing Unit)**
CPU is the abbreviation of the English term "Central Processing Unit."
In our language, this is called the Central Processing Unit or simply the processor (CPU).
The CPU is like the brain of the computer.
It reads, processes, and produces results for all commands (for example, program calculations, operating system instructions).
In other words:
Every letter you type on the keyboard, every visual you see on the screen, every movement that occurs in games — all happen thanks to the calculations of the CPU.
---
💻 **Where is the CPU located?**
**In desktop computers:**
It is located on the motherboard and is covered with a cooler.
**In laptops:**
It comes in a smaller form and consumes less power.
**In phones and tablets:**
The CPU is usually inside the SoC (System on Chip) together with the GPU and RAM.
**In game consoles and portable devices:**
CPU + GPU are combined in the form of an APU.
---
## **The Most Famous CPU (Processor) Manufacturers in the World:**
| **Manufacturer** | **Main Market** | **Well-Known Models** |
| ----------------------- | ---------------------------- | --------------------- |
| **Intel** | PC, server | i9, Xeon |
| **AMD** | PC, server, portable devices | Ryzen, EPYC |
| **Apple** | Its own devices | M1–M2–M3–M4 and above |
| **ARM (design)** | Mobile, server | Cortex, Neoverse |
| **Qualcomm / MediaTek** | Mobile | Snapdragon, Dimensity |
---
# **What is Intel?**
Intel is a technology company headquartered in the United States, but with manufacturing facilities in various countries around the world, and is one of the most established and respected companies in this field globally.
It is mainly specialized in CPU manufacturing, but recently, since 2022, it has also become a GPU (video card) manufacturer with its Intel Arc series — known for being powerful and budget-friendly.
Considering its price and performance, it has been liked by PC gamers and other users.
This company has CPUs suitable for different segments:
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## 🔹1🔹 **Intel Core i3 / i5 / i7 / i9**
These belong to Intel's older segment, but especially i7 and i9 are the most powerful CPUs.
**i3 — entry level**
Daily use: browser usage, small and mid-level games, office programs, email applications.
More budget-friendly compared to the i5.
**i5 — mid level**
Can smoothly handle mid-level games, VMware, emulators, mid-level video and photo editing programs.
Also suitable for audio editing, mixing, and workloads that are not too heavy.
More budget-friendly compared to the i7 and i9.
**i7 — for medium and higher-level workloads**
Designed for software work, games, and similar tasks.
Example: Live streaming (e.g., Discord, Twitch, YouTube Live).
Suitable for many medium and relatively heavy workloads.
More budget-friendly compared to the i9.
**i9 — professional and most powerful level**
Designed for very heavy workloads and professional software.
Examples: rendering, 3D modeling, scientific calculations, large video projects, high-FPS games; game-engine software (Unreal, Unity); running multiple operating systems simultaneously in virtual machines; running multiple Android, iOS, and other emulators at the same time.
It is the most expensive CPU compared to i3, i5, and i7.
---
## 🔹2🔹 **Intel Atom**
These are the oldest but most budget-friendly CPUs produced by Intel.
Used in small computers and mini PCs for everyday tasks.
Usage purposes: web browsing, office documents, basic video and audio media programs, and small-scale video games.
---
## 🔹3🔹 **Intel Pentium**
First produced by Intel in 1993.
It is an old but budget-friendly CPU and has been used in many older-generation laptops and PCs.
Has a fixed (GHz) clock speed (does not have Turbo Boost like new Intel i5, i7, i9 models).
Turbo Boost automatically activates when the CPU's base speed is insufficient and more speed is required for programs.
This CPU can run many old-generation video games
(examples: GTA San Andreas, older versions of Call of Duty, FarCry 1, FarCry 2, etc.).
---
## 🔹4🔹 **Intel Celeron**
Intel Celeron processors are budget-friendly models designed for daily use.
Although they belong to an older segment, they are still found in many office laptops.
Used mostly in entry-level desktop and laptop computers.
They have enough power for simple web browsing, email, office documents, watching movies, and light media programs.
They can also run old and light video games (examples: Counter-Strike 1.6, Age of Empires II, SimCity 4, etc.).
Not suitable for heavy games and professional software.
Since they have fixed and moderate clock speeds, laptops with these CPUs have good battery life.
---
## 🔹5🔹 **Intel Xeon**
One of the most powerful CPU segments produced by Intel.
Usually used in servers and workstations.
They are among the CPUs with the highest RAM support produced by Intel.
Example: Apple Mac Pro 2019 used Intel Xeon W, which supported up to 1,500 GB of RAM.
It is no longer manufactured today (new-generation M2-chip Mac Pro models support a maximum of 192 GB of RAM).
**Advantage of Xeon CPUs** — availability of models suitable for different budget levels.
Example: E3-1246 V3 model (around 25 USD on platforms like eBay).
Although it is a server CPU, it can also be used in desktop PCs if compatible with other components.
Many of them provide more powerful and stable performance than 10th-generation Intel i5 CPUs (because they have larger L1, L2, and L3 caches).
The strongest Xeon segments are currently **Xeon Max Series** and **Xeon Platinum (new generation)** CPUs.
Very high performance: some models have 60+ physical cores and 120+ threads.
These CPUs support several terabytes of RAM.
They are more suitable for HPC (High Performance Computing), artificial intelligence (AI), supercomputers, large data centers, and servers.
Due to their high price, they are not suitable for standard home users.
---
## 🔹6🔹 **Intel Core Ultra 5, 7, 9 (New and Most Well-Known)**
"Ultra" series processors are Intel's newest and most modern high-level CPU family.
This family offers high performance, new technologies, and wide usage areas.
Suitable for high-performance tasks: video editing, 4K/8K editing, 3D modeling, gaming, and programming.
In portable (laptop) devices — used in "ultra-thin" and "long battery life" systems.
Supports artificial intelligence (AI) applications and machine learning:
The Ultra family comes with an NPU (Neural Processing Unit) set.
Example: **Core Ultra 9 285K** — comes with 24 cores, up to 5.7 GHz boost frequency, and a very large cache amount.
Since the newest-generation laptops use this CPU, they have long battery life; for standard tasks, they provide an average of about 22 hours of battery life.
What is AMD?
AMD is a technology company founded in 1969 in the United States by Jerry Sanders and others.
Its main purpose: to compete with Intel and produce high-performance processors and chipsets.
During the 1980s–1990s, AMD began producing x86 processors and entered into competition with Intel.
(Many modern CPUs also use the x86-64 architecture to manufacture processors. For this reason, many older software applications can still run compatibly on many CPUs.
Example: We cannot place a 64-bit object into a 32-bit space, but we can easily place a 32-bit object into a 64-bit space.
Therefore, a CPU with 64-bit capability can also run 32-bit programs.)
Additionally, software that can run on 32-bit CPUs using x86 is decreasing over time.
Microsoft has reduced support for the Windows 10 operating system with 32-bit support as of 2025.
However, some operating systems and software with 32-bit support still exist, although limited.
After 2006, AMD acquired ATI Graphics and began producing graphics cards.
From that year onward, it became the most serious competitor to NVIDIA.
Additionally, compared to NVIDIA, AMD offers video cards that are more affordable, have more VRAM, and are more powerful for users.
However, because ray tracing on AMD video cards is not as advanced as on NVIDIA cards, AMD still cannot dominate the GPU market.
But this feature is more important for PC gamers, so it is not necessary for everyone.
AMD CPU Segments:
🔹1🔹 AMD Athlon
AMD Athlon processors are entry-level CPUs that provide basic performance for budget-friendly computers.
They are sufficient for daily use such as simple office work, internet browsing, email, and light media programs.
In short: similar to Intel Celeron/Pentium, suitable for daily tasks.
🔹2🔹 AMD Ryzen 3
A CPU designed for transitioning from entry-level to mid-level usage.
It provides enough power for mid-level games, office programs, and video/photo editing.
Its competitor, Intel i3, offers similar performance and can be better in some cases.
Some models include an APU system (similar to some Intel models).
(APU — used for processors that have a graphics module inside the CPU, and APU systems are usually sufficient for simple and mid-level graphics workloads.)
🔹3🔹 AMD Ryzen 5
Mid-range processors.
Usage areas: more complex games, creative work (video/photo editing), virtual machines, and emulators.
Its competitor, Intel i5, offers similar performance and can be better in some cases.
Ideal for mid-level workloads.
🔹4🔹 AMD Ryzen 7
Mid-range and high-performance processors.
Suitable for mid-level and relatively high workloads.
Usage areas: streaming, gaming, professional video/photo editing, and parallel software tasks.
Its competitor, Intel i7, offers similar performance and can be better in some cases.
Ideal for mid-level and high-level workloads.
🔹5🔹 AMD Ryzen 9
Professional and very powerful processors.
Suitable for rendering, 3D modeling, high-FPS games, virtual machines, and AI applications.
Its competitor, Intel i9, offers similar performance and can be better in some cases.
Ideal for high-level workloads.
🔹AMD CPUs based on Zen architecture
🔹AMD Threadripper
Designed for workstations, these are considered the most powerful CPUs after AMD EPYC.
High-end models support up to 1 TB of RAM (new 1024 GB RAM).
They can be comfortably used for professional work, rendering, design, engineering, and creative tasks.
Their price is around 2,500 USD.
🔹AMD EPYC
AMD's most powerful processor family designed for servers, data centers, and high-performance computing (HPC) systems.
These CPUs stand out with a large number of cores, large cache, and wide RAM support.
They have high energy efficiency and can manage multiple virtual machines and server processes simultaneously.
Used for HPC, AI, cloud computing, rendering, and large databases.
Supports up to 6 TB of DDR5 RAM.
The most expensive processor produced by AMD.
High-end models can sell for up to 6,000 USD.
Considered the closest and strongest competitor to Intel Xeon.
Since these CPUs are not compatible with every motherboard, specially designed motherboards are required.
## What Are Apple Silicon M1, M2, M3, M4 and Why Are They Produced?
Apple Silicon is a family of processors developed by Apple for its own computers and tablets, based on ARM architecture.
Since 2020, Apple has gradually abandoned Intel processors and transitioned to its own chip design.
This transition is considered a revolution in terms of both performance and energy efficiency.
Apple Silicon chips have a "SoC – System on a Chip" design.
This means that the CPU, GPU, RAM, NPU (Neural Engine), and other control blocks are all located on the same chip (inside a new main CPU).
This structure offers a different approach from Intel and AMD systems in terms of both energy savings and data transfer speed.
It is also built on the RISC architecture.
Unlike CISC architecture, CPUs with RISC architecture operate through software differently than CPUs with CISC architecture and are designed to extract maximum efficiency from the device.
CPUs with CISC architecture operate based on hardware.
The higher the power of the hardware, the more valuable, faster, stable, and high-performing the operating system and software running on CPUs with this architecture will operate.
Although RISC and CISC appear similar, each is a separate and different world.
🔹1🔹 Apple M1
The beginning of the revolution (2020).
The M1 was introduced for the first time in November 2020.
It created a major shock in the computer world.
In terms of performance, this CPU rivaled the Intel i7 and was even 2–3 times more efficient than the i7 while consuming less energy.
The M1 CPU was highly appreciated among photo/video editors, DJs, sound engineers, and many creative professionals when it was first released.
These CPUs created a revolution in the Apple ecosystem with their stable laptops and long battery life.
The CPUs are only compatible with Apple Mac devices.
The Apple M1 chip supports Unified Memory Architecture (UMA) using LPDDR4X memory.
High-end models such as Pro, Max, and Ultra also exist.
The base model of the M1 supports 16 GB, M1 Pro supports 32 GB, M1 Max supports 64 GB, and M1 Ultra supports 128 GB of RAM.
🔹2🔹 Apple M2
The Apple M2 chip was introduced in June 2022.
Even though it was released about 18 months after the M1, it offered significant improvements in many key technical areas.
It has support for a new RAM technology — LPDDR5. LPDDR5 is more energy-efficient and higher-performing compared to LPDDR4X.
The base model of the M2 supports 24 GB, M2 Pro supports 32 GB, M2 Max supports 96 GB, and M2 Ultra supports 192 GB of RAM.
In short, it is an improved version of the M1 CPU.
🔹3🔹 Apple M3
The Apple M3 series (M3, M3 Pro, M3 Max, M3 Ultra) was introduced in October 2023 and brought 3-nanometer chip technology to the Apple Silicon family for the first time.
This makes the M3 both more powerful and cooler.
Shorter transistor distance means higher performance and less energy loss.
The M3 CPU is equipped with a new GPU architecture (Dynamic Caching), and the GPU working together with this CPU now divides resources dynamically.
This eliminates unnecessary energy and memory loss during graphic tasks.
This feature provides more stable FPS, lower heat, and more efficient graphic processing.
It also has hardware ray tracing technology.
The advantage of this chip is that it can perform ray tracing internally without needing a dedicated external GPU like NVIDIA.
The base model of the M3 supports 24 GB, M3 Pro supports 36 GB, M3 Max supports 128 GB, and M3 Ultra supports 192 GB of RAM.
🔹4🔹 Apple M4
The Apple M4 processor is a new stage of the Apple Silicon family and stands out with its core innovations.
It is built on a 3-nanometer process (TSMC N3E) — which means lower energy consumption and higher performance.
The M4 processor is not just a new model but also a more efficient, more powerful, and future-oriented platform.
If you want long lifespan, high performance, and compatibility with future software on your device, the M4 can be an ideal choice in terms of specifications.
The base model of the M4 supports 32 GB, M4 Pro supports 64 GB, and M4 Max supports 128 GB of RAM.
(💡 Additional information: These CPUs are built on ARM architecture.)
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**What Is ARM:**
ARM (Advanced RISC Machines) architecture is based on the RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) principle.
To put it simply, this architecture is built on the philosophy of "doing more with fewer instructions."
Thanks to this, ARM-based processors are both energy-efficient and run cooler.
In the beginning, ARM chips were designed for mobile devices and smart systems.
However, in recent years, with the advancement of technology, this architecture has found its place in laptops, tablets, servers and even supercomputers.
However, these segment processors do not have as broad a software ecosystem as Intel and AMD.
Therefore, when you own an ARM-based device, it is important to check in advance whether the software, drivers and system support you need are available.
These processors became popular mostly with the Raspberry Pi.
---
**Qualcomm / MediaTek**
🔹 **1** 🔹 **What Is Qualcomm**
Qualcomm is a US-based technology company and is especially known for its Snapdragon series.
These chips are produced for mobile phones, tablets, and sometimes laptops.
Qualcomm's main advantage — stable performance, low energy consumption, and strong modem technology.
Snapdragon processors offer not only the CPU, but also the GPU (Adreno), the AI processor (NPU), the network modem (5G/4G), and multimedia blocks together.
Laptops produced with this chip are progressing toward becoming the closest competitors to MacBook devices and are currently still under development.
However, since they belong to the ARM architecture, they do not have as broad software support as Intel x86/x64 architecture CPUs.
Work is being done to eliminate this difference in the future.
---
🔹 **2** 🔹 **What Is MediaTek**
MediaTek is a Taiwan-based technology company and is one of the companies that produces the most mobile processors in the world.
Its main purpose — offering powerful performance at an affordable price.
MediaTek chips are widely used especially in mid-range and entry-level smartphones.
These processors are energy-efficient, stable for daily use, and often more affordable.
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**RAM (Random Access Memory) – Processor Memory: What Is It**
🔹 **1** 🔹 RAM is a memory unit that temporarily stores all the data currently used by the programs and the operating system running on the device.
RAM is much faster than permanent storage units such as HDD and SSD, but the main difference is this: when the power is cut, all data in RAM is erased.
**The main difference between RAM and HDD:**
HDD or SSD is the main storage where all files on the computer are kept (operating system, software, documents, drivers, etc.) (excluding the software in BIOS/UEFI).
RAM temporarily holds the portion of these data that is being actively used, allowing the processor (CPU) to access it faster.
To explain this process with a simple analogy:
HDD — is like a "ground location" (all files are stored there).
RAM — is like a "ladder" leading to that location.
So, program files are stored on the HDD, but when the program starts running, this data is moved into RAM.
RAM temporarily holds this data so that the CPU can access it quickly and without interruption.
In short: If a program is a "person," the HDD is the place where they stand, and the RAM is the ladder they use to reach that place.
The higher the RAM capacity in GB, the more parallel processes can be done simultaneously—if the CPU supports it.
Additionally, RAM is one of the longest-lasting components of a device and, under good conditions, can operate without issues for approximately 15–20 years.
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🔹 **RAM Types and Technologies**
🔸 **DDR (Double Data Rate)**
This technology is considered a revolution in RAM history.
The main idea of DDR — is the ability to send data twice per second.
In previous technologies, data was transmitted once per "cycle" (clock cycle), but DDR does it twice.
This is like opening two lanes on a road — more cars (data) can move at the same time.
---
🔸 **DDR1** 🔸
DDR1 holds its place as the first step in the history of memory technology.
This generation was first produced by Samsung in June 1998.
In the 2000s, it began to be used in PC computers.
DDR1 RAM frequencies range from about 266 MHz to 400 MHz.
Additionally, these RAM modules require about 2.5V of power to operate.
A single DDR1 RAM module has a maximum capacity of 1 GB (per slot). But for server/workstation DDR1 RAM, this capacity can go up to 2 GB.
---
🔸 **DDR2** 🔸
DDR2 is the second step in development.
The DDR2 memory generation began production in 2003 and quickly replaced DDR1 in the computer world.
Its main purpose — to provide higher speed and lower energy consumption.
DDR2 RAM works at frequencies from 400 MHz to 800 MHz, approximately twice as fast as the previous generation.
In terms of energy, it now operates at 1.8V — meaning less heat and better energy efficiency.
Additionally, DDR2 RAM uses a more efficient "prefetch" technology to increase internal data transfer capacity (data rate).
Simply put, RAM could now "read and write more data at the same time."
Models with 1 GB, 2 GB, or 4 GB capacity per slot are available.
---
🔸 **DDR3** 🔸
DDR3 can be described as the "era of speed and stability" in memory technology.
This RAM generation was introduced in 2007 and quickly became the most widely used memory type in both desktop and laptop computers.
The main differences — energy efficiency and higher frequencies.
DDR3 RAM operates at frequencies from 800 MHz to 2133 MHz and consumes only 1.5V (1.35V in mobile versions — DDR3L).
In terms of capacity, DDR3 RAM modules were produced up to 16 GB (per module), and for servers, this amount can exceed 32 GB.
The biggest advantage of DDR3 — stable performance and good price balance.
For many years, it remained the main memory technology for gaming PCs, workstations, and servers, and it is still used today.
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🔸 **DDR4** 🔸
DDR4 is a new stage in memory technology in terms of speed, energy efficiency, and stability.
This RAM generation was introduced in 2014 and quickly became the standard in both gaming computers and server systems.
Main differences:
* **Frequency range:** Starts at 1600 MHz and goes up to 3200 MHz and beyond (overclocked models can exceed 5000+ MHz).
* **Energy consumption:** Reduced from 1.5V to 1.2V. This means less heat and longer lifespan.
* **Capacity:** From 4 GB to 64 GB per module. Server and workstation models offer up to 256 GB per module.
* **Technology:** The bank structure and burst length (BL8) system were improved, making data transmission more efficient.
Simply put, DDR4 RAM manages data more intelligently, meaning the system works "smarter" and faster.
---
🔸 **DDR5** 🔸
DDR5 is the generation that opens the door to the future of memory technology.
This generation was introduced in 2020, and its main purpose is to provide "unlimited" speed and optimized energy efficiency.
* **Frequency:** Starts at 4800 MHz and can reach 8000–9000 MHz in some models.
* **Energy consumption:** Reduced from 1.2V to 1.1V. This means less heat, a more stable system, and longer battery life.
* **Updated internal structure:** Each module is divided into two independent 32-bit sub-channels.
→ RAM can now operate with two different data streams simultaneously, significantly increasing parallel performance.
* **Capacity:** A single module can now reach up to 128 GB. For servers, options range from 256 GB to 2 TB (per slot).
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**Hard Disk or SSD (Hard Disk / Solid State Drive)**
---
**1- HDD (Hard Disk Drive) — What Is It?**
HDD — Hard Disk Drive is the permanent storage unit of the computer. In other words, even if the power is cut, the data is not deleted. This unit stores all files, programs, the operating system, and documents.
HDDs operate using a mechanical principle: they contain rotating magnetic disks (platters) and a read/write head that reads and writes data. As the disk rotates, the head reads or writes the data on it — this is very similar to how a record player works.
For PCs and servers, HDDs are thicker in size. But HDDs produced for laptops are smaller and thinner. However, an HDD produced for PC can be connected to a laptop using special USB converters and adapters. Likewise, an HDD produced for a laptop can also be used in a PC.
The speed of an HDD depends directly on the RPM (revolutions per minute). Among HDDs, there are two most popular disk rotation standards: one is 5200 RPM, and the other is 7200 RPM. Therefore, an HDD with 7200 RPM provides faster read/write performance than an HDD with 5200 RPM. In short, the higher the HDD RPM, the faster the computer operates.
In addition, the most common form factor for HDDs is the SATA form factor. Most modern HDDs use the SATA (Serial ATA) interface — this is the most widely used connection standard for both desktop and laptop computers.
💡 **Note:** Since HDDs have rotating mechanisms, they consume more energy in laptops.
**Advantages:**
🔸1🔸 Large capacity — 1 TB, 2 TB, even 20 TB and higher models are available.
🔸2🔸 Affordable price — they are cheaper than SSDs with the same capacity. For this reason, the world's largest companies' data centers (Google, YouTube, and others) still mostly use HDDs.
🔸3🔸 Suitable for archiving and long-term data storage.
**Disadvantages:**
🔸1🔸 Since they contain mechanical parts, they are sensitive to impact.
🔸2🔸 Due to rotating parts, they produce noise and heat.
🔸3🔸 Read/write speed is lower than RAM and SSD (average 80–160 MB/s).
🔸4🔸 Since they have moving mechanical parts, in case of power outages, they are the first units to be damaged. This can lead to corruption of operating system files or other files.
Sometimes for this reason, blue screen errors occur in the Windows operating system, and although the computer turns on, it cannot be used properly because the OS does not load.
This issue is most common in relatively newer generation laptop HDDs. Laptop HDDs are more fragile and more prone to failure compared to PC HDDs.
---
**2- SATA SSD (Serial ATA Solid State Drive) 💾 — What Is It?**
SATA SSD — is the most common type of storage that appeared in the first stage of the transition from HDD to SSD technology.
💡 **Compatibility:**
Since it uses the traditional SATA interface, it works smoothly with almost all old and new desktop computers, laptops, and game consoles.
💰 **Reason:**
A SATA SSD is the easiest and most effective way to speed up old computers and laptops by 5–8 times with a very low budget.
🔹 **Working Principle:**
SATA SSDs use the same cable and connector (SATA) as HDDs, but store data in NAND Flash memory chips instead of a mechanical disk. Since there are no rotating parts, reading and writing occur entirely electronically.
⚡ **Speed:**
The SATA III interface provides real speeds of 550–560 MB/s.
Compared to traditional HDDs (100–180 MB/s), this means 4–8 times higher performance.
➜ Windows 11 usually boots in 8–15 seconds with such an SSD, and programs and games start almost instantly.
**Main Advantages: ✅**
⚡ Consumes very little energy → increases laptop battery life by 30–60 minutes
🔇 Operates completely silently
🌡️ Produces very little heat
🛡️ Far more resistant to shock, vibration, and dropping than HDD
🔌 Not physically damaged during power cuts because it has no rotating mechanism
💡 **Important Note – Power Loss:**
High-quality SATA SSDs (Samsung 870 EVO, Crucial MX500, WD Blue SA510, Kingston A400, etc.) have power loss protection; thus, data loss during sudden power cuts is prevented.
In cheap and DRAM-less models, this risk may be slightly higher.
**Weak Points (for 2025): ❌**
PCIe NVMe SSDs are 8–15 times faster (550 MB/s vs 5000–7500 MB/s)
New motherboards have fewer SATA ports; most come with only M.2 NVMe slots
In large capacities (2 TB+), HDDs are still cheaper
But in capacities of 1 TB and below, SATA SSD is now cheaper than HDD (1 TB SATA SSD ≈ 45–65 AZN, 1 TB HDD ≈ 80–110 AZN).
---
**Conclusion: 🎯**
If you want to revive an old computer or laptop → SATA SSD is still the best and cheapest option.
If you are building a new system and the motherboard has an M.2 NVMe slot → NVMe SSD makes more sense.
If your budget is limited → SATA SSD is indispensable.
---
**3- NVMe SSD (Non-Volatile Memory Express) 💾⚡ — What Is It?**
NVMe SSD — is the fastest and most modern SSD technology available today. It operates through the PCIe interface and provides 6–14 times higher data transfer speed compared to SATA SSDs because it communicates directly with the CPU.
**Compatibility 🖥️💻**
Most new-generation laptop and desktop motherboards support NVMe SSDs through the M.2 slot.
Older motherboards (until 2014) generally do not support NVMe — therefore, it is important to check "M.2 PCIe NVMe" support before purchasing.
**Who Is It Ideal For? 🎯**
Gamers (loading large games in seconds) 🎮
Video editors (4K/8K editing) 🎬
3D rendering, programmers, virtual machine users 💻
Anyone who wants maximum performance ⚡
---
**Speed (2025 models) 🚀**
PCIe 3.0 ×4 → 3000–3500 MB/s
PCIe 4.0 ×4 → 5000–7500 MB/s
PCIe 5.0 ×4 → 10 000–14 000 MB/s (2024–2025 models)
**Real usage:**
Windows 11 boot time → usually 10–18 seconds ⏱️
Large games (100 GB+) → 8–15 seconds 🎮
Programs and files → open almost instantly ⚡
---
**Main Advantages ✅**
⚡ Extremely high read/write speed
🔇 Completely silent operation
🌡️ Low heat production (with good cooling)
🛡️ Very resistant to shock and vibration
🔋 Better energy efficiency than SATA SSD (finishes tasks quickly and goes into "sleep mode")
💾 Large files are transferred and processed at record speed
---
**Important Note – Power Loss ⚡**
NVMe SSDs do not contain mechanical parts, so they are not physically damaged.
However, sudden power loss during writing may cause data loss or file system corruption.
High-quality models (Samsung 990 PRO, WD Black SN850X, Seagate FireCuda 540, Kingston Fury Renegade, etc.) have Power Loss Protection capacitors that reduce this risk almost to zero ✅
In cheap and DRAM-less models, the risk is slightly higher ⚠️
---
**Weak Points ❌**
1.6–2.2 times more expensive than SATA SSD with the same capacity 💰
Does not work on old motherboards 🛑
High-speed models can produce more heat during use (heatsink recommended) 🌡️
Prices for capacities over 4 TB are still high 💵
---
**Estimated Prices for 2026 (Turkey Market) 💵**
1 TB NVMe (PCIe 4.0) → 4K TL and above
2 TB NVMe (PCIe 4.0) → 10K – 24K TL
1 TB SATA SSD → 4K – 5.5K TL
---
**Conclusion 🎯**
If you are building a new system or buying a high-performance laptop → NVMe SSD is an essential choice ⚡
If you want to speed up an old computer/laptop → SATA SSD is more suitable 💾
If you want maximum speed, comfort, and a future-proof system → get an NVMe SSD, you won't regret it! ✅
---
**Graphics Card (Graphics Processing Unit – GPU) 🖥️ What Is It?**
A graphics card is the fundamental unit that processes graphical data in a computer. That is, every visual element we see on the screen — images, videos, 3D models, game graphics, and interface elements — is processed by the GPU and sent to the monitor.
While the CPU performs various tasks sequentially, the GPU can perform thousands of graphical operations simultaneously thanks to its parallel processing power.
💡 The GPU is not only for gaming:
AI and Deep Learning 🤖
Crypto Mining ⛏️
Android/iOS Emulator Farming 📱
Video editing and 3D rendering 🎬
In these fields as well, the GPU plays a very important role.
---
### **Main Components of a Graphics Card ⚙️**
**GPU chip** – the main computation center (cores are located here) 🧠
**VRAM (Video RAM)** – high-speed memory where graphical data (textures, frames, buffers) is temporarily stored 💾
**Cooling system (Fan / Heatsink)** – prevents the chip from overheating ❄️
**VRM (Voltage Regulator Module)** – regulates power ⚡
**Display outputs (HDMI, DisplayPort, DVI, VGA)** – provide connection to the monitor 🖥️
---
### **Main Specifications of a GPU 📊**
Core Clock (MHz) – operating speed of the cores ⏱️
Number of CUDA / Stream cores – the more there are, the more parallel operations can be performed ⚡
VRAM Amount and Type (GDDR5, GDDR6, HBM, etc.) – affects speed and performance 💾
Bus Width (Bit) – width of the data transfer channel; e.g., 128-bit, 256-bit 🔗
TDP (Thermal Design Power) – indicator of power consumption and heat output
---
### 🔹**Types of GPUs**🔹
---
#### **Integrated GPU**
Built inside the CPU.
It is energy-efficient but not as powerful as a dedicated GPU.
Sufficient for office work, internet browsing, watching movies, and simple graphics tasks.
Examples: Intel Iris Xe, Apple M1/M2/M3/M4 GPU, AMD Radeon Vega iGPU
---
#### **Dedicated GPU**
Connected to the motherboard as a separate unit and has its own VRAM.
Provides much higher performance but requires more power and cooling.
Examples: NVIDIA GeForce RTX, AMD Radeon RX, Intel Arc.
---
### **Detailed Explanation:**
In general, we can think of dedicated GPUs as an additional helper and booster for our computer — almost like a separate computer or motherboard. Because this unit contains a chip similar to a CPU and VRAM similar to RAM.
During normal use, while navigating the desktop, the GPU does not operate at full capacity, especially in laptops and PCs. But when you run high-performance programs such as CapCut or OBS Studio, the GPU automatically activates and helps the computer handle the workload comfortably.
This happens automatically, especially on laptops. In general, on laptops with APU (Integrated GPU) + Dedicated GPU systems, during simple browsing or basic tasks, the dedicated GPU stays passive. If you haven't activated the dedicated GPU permanently from settings for a browser or another program, this intentional passive behavior extends battery life and ensures more efficient energy usage.
---
### **What Is VRAM?**
"VRAM" (Video Random Access Memory) — as the name suggests — is special memory used to temporarily store video data (all images displayed on the screen, textures, frames, 3D models, etc.). This memory is a special type of RAM that belongs to the GPU.
---
### 🔹**How Can We Understand VRAM Capacity as Power?**
Let's say you are playing a game and the screen is full of countless details — buildings, shadows, explosions, characters, textures… All this visual data is first loaded into VRAM, then processed by the GPU and displayed on the screen.
If VRAM capacity is low:
The GPU must repeatedly fetch this data from system RAM or the disk; in this case, FPS drops, the game "lags," and sometimes image quality is reduced so that the system does not choke.
---
### 🔹**Why Is VRAM Important?**
🧩 It is the main storage area for graphical data: Textures, 3D models, shadow and lighting effects are stored in VRAM.
⚙️ It ensures efficient GPU operation: The GPU retrieves all data instantly from VRAM; this is much faster than the connection between the CPU and RAM.
🎮 It is a critical factor for high FPS and stable performance: Especially in gaming, 3D rendering, and video editing, VRAM amount directly affects performance.
🖥️ It is required for high resolutions: 1080p, 4K, 8K, and even 12K video content means more data and more simultaneous elements to process — which requires more VRAM.
---
### 🔹**VRAM and GPUs in Servers**🔹
Traditional APU-based systems (where CPU and GPU are combined on the same chip) offer limited resources for highly parallel and graphics-intensive workloads.
However, large server infrastructures are now equipped with dedicated GPUs. The main reason is that dozens or even hundreds of graphics-based tasks are executed simultaneously.
For example:
To run hundreds of Android or iOS emulators on a server at the same time, the graphics processor and memory (VRAM) requirement for each virtual device is calculated separately.
For such workloads, the multi-core architecture and large VRAM capacity of GPUs provide an ideal environment. Therefore, server-grade GPUs — such as NVIDIA A100, H100, or AMD Instinct series — are equipped with 40 GB to as much as 192 GB of HBM2/HBM3 type VRAM.
This allows them to run hundreds of mobile emulators, AI models, rendering operations, and data analysis tasks simultaneously.
---
### 💡 **In short:**
"A normal GPU is the power in the hands of a single player, but server GPUs are power centers designed so that hundreds of players can play at the same time."
---
🌍 **Leading Countries in the Graphics Card Market**
🇺🇸 **1. United States – Global leader and innovation hub**
The U.S. plays the role of the brain center in the GPU industry.
Major tech giants are headquartered here:
* **NVIDIA** (Santa Clara, California)
* **AMD** (Austin, Texas)
* **Intel** (Santa Clara, California)
These companies design the architecture, technology, and software behind GPUs.
In other words, the *"intelligence and software"* side of GPUs is shaped entirely in the United States.
However, most physical manufacturing takes place in other countries (especially in Asia).
**The U.S. Advantage in the Graphics Card Market:**
* Global center for research and innovation
* Home of technologies like CUDA, DLSS, Ray Tracing, ROCm
* NVIDIA controls over 90% of the AI and data center market
🇹🇼 **2. Taiwan – The true production powerhouse (hardware center)**
Taiwan is the manufacturing leader of the global graphics card industry.
The world's most important chip manufacturer, **TSMC (Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company)**, is located here.
NVIDIA, AMD, and Apple all produce their chips in TSMC factories.
Additionally, well-known GPU brands such as **ASUS, MSI, GIGABYTE, and ASRock** are also based in Taiwan.
In short: GPUs are *designed in the U.S.*, but *manufactured in Taiwan*.
**Taiwan's Advantages:**
* The world's most advanced chip manufacturing technology (3nm, 5nm)
* Top-tier cooling and motherboard technology
* 60–70% of the global GPU supply originates from Taiwan
---
## **What Is a Neural Processing Unit (NPU)?**
An **NPU (Neural Processing Unit)** is a specialized processor designed to handle artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithms in a manner similar to how the human brain processes information.
Simply put, an NPU is the part of a computer that *"mimics neural activity."*
NPUs are used especially in AI tasks such as:
* Speech recognition
* Image and video analysis
* Translation and natural language processing (e.g., ChatGPT, Siri, Bixby)
* Face and object recognition
* Camera optimization
They perform these tasks extremely fast and with very low power consumption.
This is why the rise of creative AI tools like **SUNO AI** coincides with the widespread adoption of NPUs.
---
## **A Simple Explanation of AI (Artificial Intelligence)**
Many people think AI and automation are brand-new technologies. However, the foundation of AI was shaped years ago through video games.
Think about it:
When playing older games like **GTA: San Andreas, Vice City, Far Cry 1, or Call of Duty**, the NPCs (game characters), vehicles, animals, and other objects always reacted differently.
For example, when you approach an NPC, sometimes they run away, sometimes they fight, and sometimes they ignore you. These behaviors are created through probability-based game programming.
In other words, the *"AI"* in these games functioned so convincingly and naturally that for years we interacted with it without fully realizing it.
These **manual but complex AI systems** in games — such as NPC decision-making algorithms, pathfinding, and combat strategies — laid the groundwork for the principles of modern AI models.
Over time, AI evolved into specialized models for different fields. For example:
* DAWs (digital audio workstations) that analyze or modify the BPM of an MP3/WAV
* AI-powered mastering tools like iZotope (virtual audio processing tools)
* AI technologies for photo editing, video production, and SEO optimization
All these AI technologies have been gradually developed and made available to users.
---
🎧 **How Does AI Understand and Analyze Music?**
For example, AI models used in the music industry cannot fully replicate the listening ability and emotional intelligence (EQ) of a professional human.
The emotional perception humans possess — the ability to understand the emotional impact, energy, and depth of a melody — does not yet exist in artificial intelligence.
However, AI models approach music not emotionally but mathematically.
By analyzing the billions of bytes and frequency values that make up an audio file (MP3, WAV, FLAC, etc.), they compute:
* Volume level
* Tempo (BPM)
* Chord structure (harmony)
* Timbre (sound color)
As a result, they provide the user with precise technical information or alternative variations.
This field is known in computer science as **Audio Programming**.
Powerful deep learning–based AI models developed in this area are now used at a professional level.
For example:
* DJs use AI for automatic mixing and mastering
* Musicians use it for rhythm and harmony analysis
* Audio engineers use it for automatic sound optimization
These systems are now actively utilized.
In conclusion, artificial intelligence is no longer just an analytical tool — it has become part of the creative process.
Furthermore, every profession and every domain now has AI models developed specifically for its subcategories.
---
## **What Is a Bot?**
Bots are software programs that mimic human behavior either semi-automatically or fully automatically. Unlike humanoid robots, they have no physical components. They can only operate on a device such as a server, PC, game console, or mobile phone.
Bots have been evolving continuously since the 1990s. Although they are used in almost every field today, their capabilities have advanced to astonishing levels since 2016.
🔹 **Most Common Types of Bots in the World** 🔹
🔹 **1. Chatbots** – Communicate with humans via text or voice and are now used for almost every purpose. This is one of the most heavily invested sectors.
Examples: ChatGPT, Siri, Alexa, Grok, Gemini, Claude AI, Meta AI, Copilot, DeepSeek, and many more.
🔹 **2. Web Crawlers (Spiders)** – Scan websites to collect data and deliver it to the owner. They are the fastest and most effective tools for pulling information from the internet. For example, they can find every occurrence of the phrase "Thank you very much" in the comments of a YouTube video.
🔹 **3. Trading Bots** – Developed to perform automated transactions in financial markets, often used in cryptocurrency trading. These bots track coin prices and can automatically buy or sell at the optimal moment.
🔹 **4. Game Bots** – Automatically perform repetitive tasks in games. Commonly used on Android/iOS devices and emulators.
🔹 **5. Social Media Bots** – Automate tasks such as posting, liking, commenting, following, reposting, and replying to comments. By mimicking human behavior, they can perform parallel tasks either instantly or with delays, and they can run 24/7 on a PC or server.
Their purpose is to automate daily repetitive tasks and generate fast popularity and income for influencers. Through these bots, millions of interactions can be produced on a single server.
---
🌐 **The Dead Internet Theory**
The Dead Internet Theory is a claim put forward by certain technology experts and researchers:
That since 2016, a large portion of the internet is no longer operated by humans, but by bots.
🔹 **Core Idea**
According to the theory:
* After 2016, the number of bots on the internet has vastly exceeded the number of real users.
* Most content on social media platforms and news sites is automatically generated by AI and bots.
* People are increasingly interacting with digital entities rather than real humans.
🔹 **Elon Musk and the "Twitter Bot" Issue**
When Elon Musk purchased Twitter (now X) in 2022, he stated:
**"The number of bots on this platform is about one-third of real users."**
This reveals that automated accounts that behave like humans now have massive influence. These accounts can create trends, generate fake popularity, and shape public opinion.
🔹 **Risks of the Theory**
* **Disinformation:** Rapid spread of fake or manipulated news
* **Fake trends:** Artificially boosting the popularity of an idea or person
* **Social manipulation:** Steering society in a particular direction
* **Loss of trust:** It becomes harder to believe whether the content we see online is created by a real person
---
## **What Is an Operating System (OS)? 🖥️💻📱**
An operating system (OS) is the core software that acts as an intermediary between hardware and software on devices such as computers, laptops, tablets, or smartphones.
In simple terms:
The operating system is like the *CEO of the computer*:
* It connects the user with the device and enables the management of the system;
* All resources (CPU, RAM, disk, GPU, NPU, display, etc.) are managed simultaneously by the operating system;
* It creates a stable, secure, and efficient environment for programs to run.
---
## **Core Functions of the Operating System**
🔹 **Resource Management**
It handles the allocation of CPU, RAM, storage, and input-output devices.
🔹 **Process Management**
It allows multiple programs and services to run simultaneously and monitors them in real time.
You can observe this especially in Windows OS through Task Manager, or in many Linux distributions through tools like Gnome System Monitor.
Additionally, many operating systems offer this function natively, and via third-party software you can also monitor processes and stop them with the "Kill Task" command.
Through these tools, you can see in real time how much CPU, RAM, GPU, NPU, network, and disk resources each program is using.
You can also terminate resource-heavy or unresponsive processes with the "Kill Task" command.
🔹 **File System**
Handles reading, writing, deleting, and organizing files on the disk.
🔹 **User Interface (UI)**
Allows the user to enter commands using a graphical (GUI) or text-based (CLI) interface.
In some cases, such as with servers, the OS may only be managed through a terminal without offering a graphical interface—for example Ubuntu Server or Windows Server.
🔹 **Security and Access Permissions**
Manages user accounts, passwords, and system permissions.
Most advanced operating systems aim to protect the user against viruses and are continuously improved for this purpose.
---
## **Examples of the Most Popular Operating Systems**
🔹 **Windows OS (Microsoft)** 🔹
This is the most important leading OS in the world. It is the most widely used operating system among home users, government institutions, private companies, and many industries.
It holds approximately 70% of the global PC/home-user market and has a special role in the server world with OS models such as Windows Server 2016, 2022, and 2025.
These server operating systems are typically used for commercial purposes because many server OS systems do not offer as broad a program support, driver support, and similar features as Windows Server does.
Nearly all programs that run on normal Windows 7, 8.1, 10, and 11 can run 24/7 uninterrupted on Windows Server OS.
In contrast, Linux servers are mostly used for purposes such as website hosting (the storage area for all website files) or in more specialized fields—for example, as the main OS for supercomputers.
---
## **Advantages of the Windows Operating System**
* It is the richest operating system in the world in terms of programs, drivers, and external device software/driver support.
* There is almost no field in the world where it is not used.
* It is compatible with the hardware of almost all PC brands produced globally.
* Even small computers with ARM-based CPUs have special versions of Windows.
For this reason, it has been an indispensable operating system worldwide for years—especially for gaming enthusiasts (PC gamers) and professionals in many fields.
---
## **Strengths and Relative Weaknesses of Windows OS**
### 🔹 **STRENGTHS** 🔹
🧩 **Wide software compatibility:**
Almost all software developed in the world (Office, AutoCAD, Photoshop, Cubase, Premiere Pro, etc.) is designed primarily for Windows.
Therefore, Windows is the most flexible platform for both personal and professional users.
🎮 **Gaming support:**
It is the most optimized operating system in the gaming industry.
Thanks to DirectX technology, graphics performance is very high, and all popular games (GTA, Call of Duty, Far Cry, Valorant, etc.) are developed primarily for Windows.
🔧 **Device and driver compatibility:**
Windows works smoothly with hundreds of thousands of devices from different manufacturers (printers, internal or external sound cards, GPUs, cameras, etc.).
Thanks to Microsoft's "Plug and Play" system, many devices are recognized automatically.
🧠 **User-friendly interface:**
Simple and clear menus, visual management, and multilingual support make Windows user-friendly for both beginners and experts.
🌍 **Global support and resources:**
There are countless tutorials, forums, and technical help resources online for Windows.
This makes problem-solving much easier compared to Linux or macOS.
🧱 **Strong ecosystem and integration:**
It integrates tightly with Microsoft's other products (OneDrive, Azure, Office 365, Xbox Cloud, etc.).
This provides a complete ecosystem for both individual and corporate users.
---
### 🔻 **RELATIVE WEAKNESSES** 🔻
🦠 **Susceptibility to viruses and malware:**
Because Windows has the highest market share, it is the most targeted OS by malware developers.
Therefore, antivirus software and regular updates are important for security.
⚙️ **High system resource usage:**
Newer Windows versions (especially Windows 10 and 11) consume more RAM, CPU, and disk resources.
Performance may be lower on older or low-spec computers.
💰 **Licensing and cost:**
Windows OS and Microsoft products like Office are paid.
Unlicensed or cracked versions can pose security and legal risks, especially for companies.
🧩 **Occasional instability of updates:**
Some Microsoft updates can cause system stability issues or driver incompatibilities.
This can be a serious problem for enterprise users.
🪫 **Automatic background processes:**
Windows runs many background services (telemetry, update checks, Cortana, etc.), which can increase RAM, CPU, and disk usage without the user noticing.
---
### **And the Hardware Limits of These Operating Systems:**
🔹**1🔹 Windows 11 Home**
| Parameter | Official Value |
| ----------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Maximum RAM (64-bit) | 128 GB |
| Number of physical CPUs | 1 unit |
| Physical cores | Maximum 64 (inside 1 CPU) |
| Logical processors | Maximum 64 (with Hyper-Threading it can be doubled, but the limit is 64) |
| Basic features | Microsoft Store, Cortana, Edge available; BitLocker, Remote Desktop, Domain Join not available |
Official note:
Windows 11 Home is designed for personal use. It supports 1 physical CPU with a maximum of 64 physical cores and 64 logical processors.
---
🔹**2🔹 Windows 11 Pro**
| Parameter | Official Value |
| ------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Maximum RAM | 2 TB (2048 GB) |
| Number of CPUs | 2 units |
| Physical cores | Maximum 128 (distributed between 2 CPUs, e.g., 64+64) |
| Logical processors | Maximum 128 (with Hyper-Threading it can be doubled, but the limit is 128) |
| Additional features | BitLocker, Remote Desktop, Hyper-V, Group Policy, Azure AD, Domain Join |
Windows 11 Pro supports 2 CPUs and 128 cores along with 2 TB of RAM.
---
🔹**3🔹 Windows 11 Education**
| Parameter | Official Value |
| ---------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Maximum RAM | 2 TB |
| Physical CPUs | 2 units |
| Maximum cores | 256 cores |
| Highest security | Windows Defender ATP, AppLocker, DirectAccess, Credential Guard, Virtualization-Based Security |
---
🔹**4🔹 Windows 11 IoT Enterprise LTSC 2024**
| Parameter | Official Value |
| -------------------- | --------------------------------------------------- |
| RAM / CPU | Same as Enterprise → 6 TB, 2 CPUs, 256 cores |
| Support duration | 10 years (until 2034) |
| Update policy | Security updates only |
| Removed applications | Microsoft Store, Cortana, Xbox apps – not available |
| Available programs | Microsoft Edge – available (some functions limited) |
Windows 11 Enterprise supports 6 TB of RAM and 2 physical CPUs with a maximum of 256 cores.
---
🔹**5🔹 Windows Server 2025**
To run this operating system, the minimum RAM requirement is 512 MB, and it is the OS with the highest RAM support in the Windows family.
Windows Server 2016 / 2019 — maximum 24 TB RAM
Windows Server 2022 / 2025 — maximum 48 TB RAM or more
---
### **In general:**
For most operating systems, the real limitation is determined by the motherboard and CPU architecture of the device.
---
### **Additional Information:**
Let's say you have a PC with 8 GB of RAM and a CPU suitable for x64 architecture, and you install a 32-bit operating system on it, for example Windows 10 32-bit — the computer will boot and work normally.
However, the operating system will not be able to detect more than 4 GB of RAM.
Also, on the internet there are many Windows OS examples and versions that are not officially supported by Microsoft, modified and requiring fewer resources, such as Atlas OS, Tiny10, Tiny11.
However, some similar examples may carry certain security risks for the device.
---
## **What Is OS X / macOS?**
macOS is an operating system developed by Apple and designed exclusively for Mac devices.
The origins of this operating system go back to 1984, to the invention of the first Macintosh computers.
Modern versions of macOS are Unix-based; meaning the foundation of the system is stability, security, and performance.
Apple designed macOS to be fully integrated into its own ecosystem — this is one of its biggest advantages.
In other words, it works seamlessly with the iPhone, iPad, Apple Watch, and even Apple TV.
For example, you can copy text on your iPhone and paste it on your Mac with Command + V — this is possible thanks to "Continuity" and "Handoff" technologies.
---
## 🔹Architecture of macOS
macOS is built on an open-source Unix kernel called Darwin.
Darwin is based on a kernel named XNU (X is Not Unix), and this structure resembles both Linux and BSD systems.
The user interface of macOS is called Aqua — it provides users with simplicity, fluid animations, and an intuitive experience.
Across the entire system, tools such as *drag and drop*, *gesture control*, and *Spotlight search* significantly increase productivity.
---
## 🔹Core Features of macOS🔹
✅ **Stability and Security:**
In Unix-based systems, the likelihood of malware breaking the system is very low.
✅ **Optimized Performance:**
Since macOS runs only on Apple devices, it is optimized specifically for each model.
✅ **Ideal for Creators:**
It is considered an "industry standard" for designers, musicians, developers, and video editors (Final Cut Pro, Logic Pro, Xcode, etc.).
✅ **Ecosystem Integration:**
Features like AirDrop, iCloud Drive, and Universal Clipboard ensure perfect harmony between devices.
---
## 🔹Relatively Weak Sides🔹
⚠️ **Limited Software Support:**
Although many popular applications support macOS, not all Windows programs and some external devices or games have official macOS support (however, tools like "Parallels Desktop" and "Crossover" can solve this in most cases).
⚠️ **Price:**
Apple devices and components are expensive.
However, Mac devices have certain hardware advantages that many Windows-compatible laptops and desktops do not offer.
⚠️ **Relatively Closed System:**
macOS is officially designed only for Apple devices.
Installing it on a different PC through unofficial methods is called Hackintosh.
This process requires advanced technical knowledge and experience.
The OS image file (ISO) can be modified to adapt it to a regular PC; it is generally suitable for computers with Intel CPUs (because Macs produced until 2020 used Intel CPUs).
However, it is not guaranteed to work 100% stably on all brands and models.
If you use Hackintosh, it is very important to verify whether the necessary software has Intel CPU support on the OS X platform.
---
## 🔹Basic Technical Requirements for Hackintosh🔹
**CPU:**
The most suitable processors are Intel-based CPUs.
The reason is that Apple used Intel processors in all Mac devices until 2020.
**Motherboard and BIOS Compatibility:**
For macOS to work with a UEFI-based bootloader (Clover, OpenCore, etc.), the BIOS/UEFI version of the device must be compatible.
**GPU and Drivers:**
macOS supports only a limited number of GPUs (especially AMD Radeon series).
NVIDIA cards require older "web drivers."
**Disk Format:**
The file system for macOS must be APFS or HFS+.
---
## 🔹Risks and Limitations of Hackintosh🔹
⚠️ **Stability Issues:**
It is not guaranteed to work completely stable on every device.
In some cases, sound, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or GPU functions may not work.
⚠️ **Update Risk:**
New macOS updates from Apple can sometimes make Hackintosh systems "unbootable."
⚠️ **Legal Limitations:**
According to Apple's license terms, macOS can only be used on Apple devices.
⚠️ **Software Compatibility:**
Some programs on Hackintosh systems work only on Intel-based macOS versions;
applications written for Apple Silicon (M1, M2, M3, M4) may be incompatible.
---
## 🔹Advantages of Hackintosh🔹
✅ It is a suitable alternative for trying the macOS ecosystem.
✅ It provides the ability to create test environments for iOS development (Xcode, Swift, etc.).
✅ It is possible to give relatively new life to older Intel-based PCs.
Additionally, the OS X operating system has been continuously developed throughout history and has continued its evolution to the present day.
## **| Year | Version | Name |**
| Year | Version | Name |
| ---- | ------------- | --------- |
| 2001 | Mac OS X 10.0 | Cheetah |
| 2007 | Mac OS X 10.5 | Leopard |
| 2013 | OS X 10.9 | Mavericks |
| 2016 | macOS 10.12 | Sierra |
| 2019 | macOS 10.15 | Catalina |
| 2020 | macOS 11 | Big Sur |
| 2021 | macOS 12 | Monterey |
| 2022 | macOS 13 | Ventura |
| 2023 | macOS 14 | Sonoma |
| 2024 | macOS 15 | Sequoia |
---
## **Detailed Information About Mac Devices**
🔹1🔹 **MacBook Air:**
This is the most affordable laptop class produced by Apple. Its physically very thin and lightweight design makes it ideal for daily use and portability. Since 2020, it has been equipped with M1, M2, M3, and M4 CPUs, making it one of the ideal options in the laptop world.
Thanks to its fanless design (without an active cooling system), it runs silently and offers around 20 hours of battery life. With these features, it is especially suitable for freelancers.
The base model comes with 8 GB RAM and 256 GB SSD; 24 GB RAM and 2 TB SSD options are also available. Despite being the base model, it can comfortably handle mid-level workloads.
🔹2🔹 **MacBook Pro:**
This is Apple's highest-segment laptop model. Unlike the MacBook Air, it has an active cooling system. In terms of power, stability, and portability, it is ideal for professional editors, video producers, sound engineers, and other creative professionals.
There are different models ranging from 16 GB to 128 GB RAM. M1, M2, M3, and M4 CPU options are available. SSD support ranges from 512 GB to 8 TB, and it is more expensive than the MacBook Air.
🔹3🔹 **iMac:**
This is Apple's all-in-one desktop computer model. The display, motherboard, CPU, RAM, and other components are combined in a single body. It comes with M1, M2, and M3 CPUs. RAM support ranges from 8 GB to 24 GB, and SSD support ranges from 256 GB to 2 TB. With its elegant design and high performance, it holds a special place in the tech world.
🔹4🔹 **Mac Mini:**
This is the smallest and most affordable desktop computer produced by Apple. It stands out with its energy efficiency and stability. It offers RAM support from 8 GB to 32 GB and SSD support from 256 GB to 2 TB. With its accessible price, it is ideal for home use and mid-level workloads.
🔹5🔹 **Mac Studio:**
This model is produced by Apple and is used for high-performance tasks and creative fields despite being relatively compact. It features a 76-core GPU and up to 192 GB of Unified Memory support.
🔹6🔹 **Mac Pro:**
This is Apple's highest-segment desktop computer and is physically large. It is designed for the highest workloads and is the most expensive model in the Mac lineup. Like a regular desktop, it has a modular structure, and many components can be replaced like a PC.
In M Ultra series models, up to 192 GB RAM and up to 8 TB SSD upgrades are possible. The 2019 Mac Pro models supported up to 1.5 TB of RAM because they were equipped with Intel Xeon CPUs, but this model is no longer produced. Mac Pro is ideal for heavy rendering, creative work, filmmaking, and 3D animation.
---
## **🔹Overall Summary Table:**
| Model | Chip | RAM Support | SSD Support | Usage Area |
| ----------- | ---------------------------------- | --------------------- | ----------- | ------------------------------------------------- |
| MacBook Air | M1, M2, M3, M4 | 8–24 GB | 256 GB–2 TB | Education, daily use, light editing |
| MacBook Pro | M1/M2/M3 Pro/Max, M4 Pro/Max | 16–128 GB | 512 GB–8 TB | Professional design, video rendering, programming |
| iMac | M1, M3, M4 | 8–24 GB | 256 GB–2 TB | Office, design, home use |
| Mac Mini | M2, M2 Pro, M4, M4 Pro | 8–64 GB (with M4 Pro) | 256 GB–8 TB | Compact system, server, developer |
| Mac Studio | M2 Max, M2 Ultra, M4 Max, M4 Ultra | 32–192 GB | 1–8 TB | 3D rendering, AI, video post-production |
| Mac Pro | M2 Ultra (no M4 Ultra yet) | 64–192 GB | 1–8 TB | AI, 3D, film industry, scientific computing |
---
# **What is Linux?**
Richard Stallman launched the GNU Project in 1984 with the goal of creating a Unix-like operating system. The necessary tools for this project had been prepared, but the most critical component for an operating system to function — the kernel — was missing.
In 1991, the Linux kernel developed by Linus Torvalds made its first step into the technology world under the GPL (General Public License). Combined with Stallman's GNU project, the system took the name "GNU/Linux."
The main purpose behind the creation of Linux was to ensure stable and fast performance on devices with the lowest hardware specifications. Another important reason was to eliminate the restrictions caused by licensing and other artificial limitations in the technology world.
Today, Linux is the operating system with the largest market share in the server and supercomputer industry. Each Linux distribution is developed for specific purposes. Therefore, it is still not as widely known or popular among home users as Windows or macOS. Linux is mostly used in the IT world for special and technical purposes.
---
# ⚙️ **Advantages of Linux**
✅ It is open source and free (at least many of its distributions).
✅ Offers a high level of security.
✅ Ideal for server and network operations.
✅ Provides excellent performance and stability.
✅ Can be adapted to many devices (thanks to being open source).
✅ Offers a wide tool ecosystem for developers and system administrators.
✅ Provides more privacy and confidentiality.
✅ Some distributions can run as portable (live USB without installing onto a new HDD or SSD).
---
# ⚠️ **Relative Disadvantages of Linux**
❌ May appear complex for non-professional users.
❌ Some commercial software (Adobe, MS Office, etc.) still lacks official support.
❌ Gaming performance and support (especially compared to Windows) may be lower in some cases.
❌ Installation and driver compatibility can be difficult on some models.
❌ Requires storage devices (HDD, SSD) with fewer bad sectors; otherwise the operating system may crash.
---
# **600+ Distributions Developed on the Linux Kernel and Examples**
🔹 **Android:**
This operating system, which is the leader in the mobile and tablet market, was initially developed for camera devices, but since 2008 it has gained a special place in the mobile market. It is written using Java, Kotlin, C, JavaScript, Go, C++, Rust, and Assembly languages.
🔹 **Ubuntu:**
One of the most popular Linux distributions, based on Debian. Actively developed and supported by Canonical Ltd. Ubuntu has versions for both server and desktop devices. It is one of the best-known Linux distributions among home users.
🔹 **Lubuntu:**
Based on Ubuntu and designed for computers with lower specifications. Therefore, it works very stably and quickly.
🔹 **Xubuntu:**
Based on Ubuntu and designed for computers with lower specifications. Requires slightly more resources than Lubuntu and primarily uses the Xfce desktop environment.
🔹 **Debian:**
Built on the Linux kernel, Debian is one of the oldest and most universal distributions in the Linux world. Popular cybersecurity distributions such as Kali Linux and ParrotOS are based on Debian and have taken their place in today's world.
🔹 **Fedora:**
Fedora Linux first emerged in 2003 as the continuation of the Red Hat Linux project and holds a special place in the Linux world.
🔹 **Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL):**
One of the oldest and strongest distributions belonging to the Red Hat Linux family. First released in 1994. Mainly used commercially by corporate companies and, unlike other distributions, it is paid.
🔹 **Arch Linux:**
One of the oldest and strongest distributions in the Linux family. Though its usage is more complex for ordinary home users, nearly every function can be customized. Many distributions such as EndeavourOS and Garuda Linux are built on Arch Linux.
🔹 **Kali Linux:**
Based on Debian and prepared by Offensive Security for cybersecurity and ethical hacking, it is one of the strongest distributions of the Linux family. Kali Linux comes with more than 600 tools such as Wireshark, Metasploit, and Nmap and holds a special place in the hacking world.
🔹 **ParrotOS:**
Based on Debian and one of the strongest and leading operating systems in cybersecurity and ethical hacking within the Linux world. Very similar to Kali Linux but slightly more powerful. It includes more tools than Kali Linux and is more advanced in anonymity and hardware hacking.
🔹 **Pardus:**
First developed and released in 2005 by the Turkish scientific and technological research institute TÜBİTAK. Used especially in educational institutions and by some home users in Turkey.
🔹 **Pisi Linux:**
A distribution developed in 2011 based on Pardus Linux. Ideal for computers with lower specifications and mostly aimed at home users.
🔹 **Wind River Linux:**
A distribution prepared as embedded for industrial devices. Has wide device support and is suitable for industrial use.
🔹 **Linux Mint:**
Mainly developed for desktop and laptop computers. Offers a GUI (graphical user interface) similar to Windows, making it loved by home users. Also provides broad driver and software support. Based on Debian and Ubuntu.
🔹 **Puppy Linux:**
One of the rare Linux distributions requiring very few resources. Can perform basic operating system functions with 128 MB RAM, 2.5 GB free hard disk space, and a basic 32–64 bit CPU.
🔹 **Ubuntu Studio:**
Based on Debian/Ubuntu, designed essentially for music producers, DJs, video and film editing experts, painters, photographers, designers, podcasters, and content creators to set up a Linux-based audio/video studio. Therefore, it includes many pre-installed programs for these fields.
🔹 **Parsix Linux:**
Based on Debian and designed to run on low-spec computers. Originates from Iran, one of the countries actively supporting Linux projects. Many Linux distributions today originate from this country.
🔹 **Firefox OS:**
An operating system developed by Mozilla for mobile devices. It had a very simple and user-friendly graphical interface. Aimed to run web applications directly using web technologies such as HTML5, CSS, and JavaScript. However, it is no longer actively supported.
🔹 **Astra Linux:**
Originating from Russia, its purpose is to increase security against the Windows operating system and prevent sensitive state data from leaking to third parties. Initially developed for government institutions but later released for home users as well. Known for running fast on low-spec computers. There are many Russian Linux distributions such as ROSA Linux, ALT Linux, and RED OS.
🔹 **Red Star OS:**
A national operating system developed by North Korea. Designed entirely for internal use and runs on an isolated "intranet." Its main purpose is to eliminate dependency on foreign (especially Western) software and ensure internal data control. Global Internet access is limited with this operating system, and its appearance resembles macOS X.
---
# **Countries Providing the Most Support for Linux and Open Source (Updated List 2025)**
№, Country, Main Projects / Support Examples, Support Level, Short Description
🇺🇸 **USA**,
"Red Hat, Fedora, Ubuntu (Canonical), Android (Google), AWS Linux, NASA, Meta AI, Microsoft (WSL, Azure Linux), Intel/AMD kernel optimizations",
"Global leader of open source. ~65% of kernel code is written by US companies."
🇨🇳 **China**,
"Kylin OS, Deepin, Unity Operating System (UOS), Huawei HarmonyOS Next (Linux kernel), OpenKylin, Alibaba Cloud Linux",
"National security strategy. Linux-based systems are developed at the state level."
🇫🇮 **Finland**,
"Linus Torvalds (creator of Linux), Jolla (Sailfish OS), Aalto & Helsinki Universities, TUX-era academic tradition",
"The country where Linux was born. Linus is still the main coordinator of the kernel."
🇩🇪 **Germany**,
"SUSE Linux Enterprise, openSUSE, Fraunhofer Institute, SAP HANA (Linux), BMW & Volkswagen (automotive systems)",
"Europe's leader in open source. Although the Munich LiMux project stopped, corporate and scientific use is very strong."
🇷🇺 **Russia**,
"Astra Linux, ROSA Linux, ALT Linux, RED OS, BaseALT, military and state certification",
"Linux for national security. Mandatory use in state institutions and military structures."
🇮🇷 **Iran**,
"Sharif OS, Zamin OS, universities and research institutes, domestic development against sanctions",
"National Linux systems due to sanctions. Relatively limited but active usage exists."
🇫🇷 **France**,
"French Gendarmerie (Linux transition since 2005), state education sector (Ubuntu-based), CNES (space programs), Mageia",
"The largest Linux transition in government institutions. 90,000+ workstations run on Ubuntu."
🇧🇷 **Brazil**,
"Conectividade Brasil, Banco do Brasil (Linux servers), Serpro (state IT services), education projects",
"Linux in government offices and the banking sector. A national open source policy exists."
🇮🇳 **India**,
"BOSS Linux, IIT Madras (open source research), Android development, ISRO (space programs)",
"Support in state and education sectors. BOSS is still active."
🇯🇵 **Japan**,
"Sony (PlayStation Linux support), Fujitsu, NEC, Toyota & Honda (automobile OS), robotics technologies",
"Linux in industry and automotive. No national OS, but integration is very strong."
🇰🇷 **South Korea**,
"Samsung kernel contributions, LG WebOS (Smart TV), Harmonica OS (for education), NIPA open source initiatives",
"Asian leader in kernel development. TmaxOS failed, but Samsung is highly active."
🇹🇷 **Turkey**,
"Pardus Linux, TÜBİTAK ULAKBİM, Ministry of National Education (with EBA), transition in government institutions",
"National distribution strategy. Active usage in government and education sectors."