Attitudes and AttributionsAttitudeAn attitude is a belief or feeling that influences how we respond to people, objects, or events.
Attitudes are more likely to affect behavior when:
The attitude is strong
It is specific to the behavior
We are aware of it
The attitude was formed through direct experience
AttributionAttribution is how we explain the causes of behavior.
Dispositional Attribution – behavior is explained by internal traits or personality.
Situational Attribution – behavior is explained by external circumstances.
Fundamental Attribution Error – the tendency to overestimate dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when judging others.
Self-Serving Bias – the tendency to attribute our successes to dispositional factors and our failures to situational factors.
Prejudice, Stereotypes, and DiscriminationPrejudice: a negative attitude toward a group
Stereotype: generalized belief about a group
Discrimination: behavior directed against a group
Factors that contribute to prejudice and discrimination:
Just-World Phenomenon: Belief that people get what they deserve
In-Group Bias: Favoring one's own group
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations about someone influence their behavior
Learning: Prejudice can be taught or reinforced by observation
Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes Experiment (Jane Elliott)
Showed how arbitrary group distinctions create prejudice
Learned 2 things:
Prejudice can form quickly
Discrimination affects performance and self-esteem
Social InfluenceSocial Norms, Roles, and ScriptsSocial Norms: Rules about how to behave in society
Social Roles: Expectations for behavior in a given position (e.g., student, parent)
Scripts: Expected sequences of events in social situations
Zimbardo Prison ExperimentShowed that people conform to social roles, even to the point of abusing others
Highlighted the power of situational factors over personality
ConformityAdjusting behavior or thinking to match a group
Informational Social Influence: Conform because we believe the group is correct
Normative Social Influence: Conform to be accepted or liked by the group
ComplianceChanging behavior in response to a direct request
Techniques:
Foot-in-the-Door: Start small → ask bigger
Door-in-the-Face: Start large → then smaller
Lowball: Agree → change conditions
That's-Not-All: Add bonus to encourage agreement
ObedienceFollowing orders from an authority figure
Milgram Shock Experiment: People obeyed even when instructed to harm others
4 factors increasing obedience (from lecture):
Authority figure's closeness
Authority legitimacy
Group pressure/support
Victim's distance
Romantic RelationshipsAttractionSimilarity > Opposites – more likely to be attracted to similar people
Mere Exposure Effect: Repeated exposure increases liking
Physical Appearance: Top predictor of attraction for both men and women
Attachment TheoryAttachment styles influence romantic behavior:
Secure: Comfortable with intimacy, trusting
Resistant (Anxious): Clingy, fears abandonment
Avoidant: Uncomfortable with closeness, distant
Conflict in RelationshipsDestructive Conflict: Hurts the relationship, involves hostility or contempt
Constructive Conflict: Leads to problem-solving and growth
Gottman's 4 Patterns of Conflict:
Volatiles: Frequent arguments but affectionate, passion-filled
Validators: Calm, respectful, compromise-focused
Avoiders: Minimize conflict, stay calm
Hostiles: Criticism, defensiveness, contempt — usually unsuccessful
All except hostiles can lead to a successful relationship
CHAPTER 15 — PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Defining Psychological DisordersA psychological disorder is diagnosed when behavior is deviant, pathological, and maladaptive.
Deviant: It differs from cultural norms.
Pathological: It is harmful or distressing.
Maladaptive: It interferes with daily life.
The DSM is the manual used to classify and diagnose mental disorders.
Comorbidity happens when a person has more than one disorder at the same time.
Risk factors increase the likelihood of developing a disorder.
Protective factors reduce the likelihood.
The Rosenhan study showed that psychiatric labels can shape how people perceive and treat patients, even when the patients are healthy.
Anxiety DisordersGeneralized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) causes constant, uncontrollable worry about multiple aspects of life. It's different from normal anxiety because it's excessive, persistent, and hard to control.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) involves obsessions — intrusive thoughts — and compulsions — repetitive behaviors to reduce anxiety.
Normal obsessions and compulsions are occasional and harmless.
Disordered ones are time-consuming and disruptive.
How anxiety disorders form:
Classical conditioning: Neutral things get paired with fear.
Observational learning: Watching others can teach anxiety.
Genetics: Some people inherit a vulnerability.
The diathesis-stress model says disorders develop when genetic vulnerability meets life stressors.
Mood DisordersMajor Depressive Disorder (MDD) symptoms: sadness, loss of interest, fatigue, changes in sleep or appetite, and feelings of worthlessness.
Mania includes high energy, impulsivity, decreased need for sleep, rapid speech, and elevated mood.
Bipolar Disorder alternates between depression and mania. Moods change slowly between extremes, not rapidly.
Causes of mood disorders:
Neurotransmitters: Low serotonin and norepinephrine are linked to depression.
Learned helplessness: Feeling that you have no control over outcomes can trigger depression.
Self-blaming attributions: Blaming yourself for negative events increases risk.
Psychotic DisordersPsychosis means losing contact with reality.
Schizophrenia myths:
People with schizophrenia are violent — false.
Schizophrenia is split personality — false.
It can't be treated — false.
Symptoms:
Positive: Additions to normal behavior, like hallucinations or delusions.
Negative: Reductions in normal behavior, like flat affect or social withdrawal.
People with schizophrenia often have abnormal brain structure and activity.
Dissociative DisordersDissociation is a disruption in memory, identity, or awareness.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID):
Involves two or more distinct personalities called alters.
Alters can differ in age, gender, mannerisms, or abilities.
Usually develops from severe childhood trauma.
Evidence that it's real comes from consistent physiological and behavioral differences among alters.
Personality DisordersPersonality disorders involve chronic, consistent symptoms across situations.
Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD):
Lack of empathy, deceitfulness, impulsivity. Psychopaths fall here.
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD):
Unstable moods, self-image, and relationships. Often confused with bipolar disorder.
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD):
Preoccupation with rules, order, and control. Differs from OCD because there are no true obsessions or compulsions.
Neurodevelopmental DisordersAutism Spectrum Disorder (ASD):
Social communication difficulties, restricted interests, repetitive behaviors.
Theory of mind: Understanding that others have different thoughts and feelings.
Spectrum: Severity varies widely.
Rates are increasing due to awareness and earlier detection.
Causes are genetic and environmental, not vaccines.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):
Symptoms:
Inattention: Trouble focusing or following instructions.
Hyperactivity/impulsivity: Fidgeting, talking too much, difficulty waiting.
Often associated with learning or emotional regulation challenges.
Causes include genetics, brain differences, and environment.